The Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) consists of the political landmass of the erstwhile Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir, which acceded to India on 26th October 1947. Before India's independence on 15th August 1947, J&K was the largest among the 562 princely states, spanning an area of 218,779 square kilometres—comparable to the combined landmass of Belgium, Denmark, Holland, Austria, and Albania. Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (POK), comprising Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) and Gilgit-Baltistan, has a complex history shaped by geopolitical conflicts and regional aspirations.
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Territorial Division of Jammu & Kashmir
At the time of accession, the total area of J&K was 2,22,236 sq km. However, over the years, significant portions of this land were occupied by Pakistan and China.
Current Territorial Status of Jammu & Kashmir
| Region | Area (sq km) | Status |
| India-administered J&K | 1,06,566 | Under Indian control |
| Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) | 72,935 | Controlled by Pakistan |
| Shaksgam Valley (PoK land ceded to China in 1963) | 5,180 | Controlled by China |
| China-occupied Kashmir (COK) | 37,555 (Aksai Chin) + 5,180 (Shaksgam) = 42,735 | Under Chinese control |
| Total J&K Area Lost to Pakistan & China | 1,15,670 | - |
Today, India maintains the Line of Control (LoC) with Pakistan and the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China.
Historical Timeline Of POK
The Lahore Resolution (1940) and Pakistan’s Claim to Kashmir
Source:dawn.com
Pakistan's assertion over Kashmir is linked to the Lahore Resolution, adopted by the All India Muslim League in 1940. This resolution emphasised that no constitutional framework would be viable or acceptable to Muslims unless territorially contiguous regions with a Muslim majority were demarcated. It further advocated that such regions—particularly in the northwestern and eastern parts of British India—should be organised into independent states, ensuring full autonomy and sovereignty for their constituent units.
| Year | Event |
| 1846 | The state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was established under the Treaty of Amritsar between the East India Company and Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu. Raja Gulab Singh purchased Kashmir Valley for ₹75,00,000 and integrated it with Jammu and Ladakh. |
| 1925 | Maharaja Hari Singh ascended the throne of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. |
| 1927 | The Hereditary State Subject Law was enacted, restricting non-state subjects from employment in public services and land ownership in the state. |
| 13 July 1931 | Protests erupted following the arrest of Abdul Qadir, who called upon Muslims to resist oppression. Police firings led to casualties, prompting a week-long mourning period. British forces were deployed to restore order. This event marked the emergence of Sheikh Abdullah as a political leader. |
| 1932 | The All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference was established to advocate for the rights of Kashmiri Muslims and challenge the rule of the Maharaja. It was later renamed the National Conference in 1939. |
| March 1932 | The Maharaja of J&K commissioned B.J. Glancy to review Muslim demands, leading to recommendations for increased Muslim representation in government services. |
| April 1932 | Kashmiri Pandits initiated the ‘Bread Movement’ to oppose the implementation of Glancy’s recommendations. |
| 1934 | The Maharaja granted a constitution establishing a legislative assembly, but it lacked significant powers. |
| 1939 | The Muslim Conference was renamed the National Conference and aligned with the Indian nationalist movement. |
| 7 September 1939 | The Maharaja enacted the Jammu and Kashmir Constitution Act, laying a constitutional framework. However, both the National Conference and the Muslim Conference found it inadequate. |
| March 1940 | The Lahore Resolution was passed by the All-India Muslim League, advocating for independent states where Muslims were in the majority. |
| April – May 1943 | The Muslim Conference was revived as a counterforce to Sheikh Abdullah’s National Conference and aligned with the Muslim League. |
| 1944 | Muhammad Ali Jinnah addressed a public gathering in Srinagar organised by the National Conference. His remarks about Indian-Muslim solidarity caused a rift between him and Sheikh Abdullah. |
| 29-30 September 1944 | The National Conference adopted the ‘Naya Kashmir’ manifesto, calling for democratic rights, self-governance, and linguistic inclusivity. |
| 1 July 1945 | The Muslim Conference held its 13th General Session in Poonch, distributing a pamphlet titled ‘Azad Kashmir’ in response to the National Conference’s Naya Kashmir manifesto. It emphasised a political and economic plan aligned with the demand for Pakistan. |
| 15 May 1946 | Sheikh Abdullah launched the ‘Quit Kashmir’ movement, demanding the end of Dogra rule and a plebiscite to determine Kashmir’s future. He was subsequently imprisoned, and martial law was declared. |
| 26 July 1946 | The Muslim Conference adopted the ‘Azad Kashmir’ resolution, calling for an end to autocratic rule and the establishment of a constituent assembly. |
| 1946-1947 | Political unrest escalated in Poonch and Jammu, influencing the larger Kashmir dispute. |
| 3 June 1947 | The British government approved the creation of an independent Pakistan in regions with a Muslim majority. |
| 14 August 1947 | Pakistan was officially established as an independent nation. |
Pre-1947: Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir
Before the partition of British India in 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was a diverse region with a Muslim-majority population ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu monarch. As British rule ended, princely states were given the choice to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent. Maharaja Hari Singh initially chose to remain independent, signing standstill agreements with both India and Pakistan to maintain the status quo.
The Role of the British in the PoK and Kashmir Conflict
The Role of Cyril Radcliffe in Partition
The partition was overseen by British barrister Cyril Radcliffe, who arrived in British India on July 8, 1947. Despite having no prior knowledge of India or cartography, he was tasked with drawing the borders between India and Pakistan within just five weeks.
British Conspiracy in Pakistan’s Invasion of J&K
The British played a significant role in Pakistan's aggression in J&K. Key figures involved included:
- Lord Mountbatten (Governor General of India)
- General Lockhart (C-in-C, Indian Army)
- General Douglas Gracey (C-in-C, Pakistan Army)
While Nehru remained unaware, Jinnah was informed about Pakistan's plan to invade Kashmir using "Razakars"—a force that included Pakistan Army regulars, all armed and trained by the Pakistan Army.
Role of Winston Churchill
- Despite Clement Atlee being the British PM, Churchill remained an influential figure.
- He instructed General Douglas Gracey to let India and Pakistan fight but ensure that "a piece of India" remains with Pakistan.
- This strategy aimed to keep India and Pakistan engaged in perpetual conflict.
1947: Poonch Rebellion and Tribal Invasion
In the spring of 1947, socio-political tensions escalated in the Poonch region due to punitive taxation and oppressive policies by the Maharaja's administration. This led to a local uprising, with recently demobilised soldiers from World War II playing a significant role. The rebellion spread, and by October 1947, several thousand Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province entered Jammu and Kashmir to support the uprising, capturing key towns like Muzaffarabad and Baramulla.
Accession to India and the First Indo-Pak War
Facing the advancing tribal forces, Maharaja Hari Singh sought military assistance from India. India agreed on the condition that Jammu and Kashmir accede to India. The Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession on October 26, 1947, integrating Jammu and Kashmir into India. Subsequently, Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar to repel the invasion. This marked the beginning of the First Indo-Pak War (1947–1948), resulting in a UN-mediated ceasefire and the establishment of the Line of Control (LoC), effectively dividing the region.
Formation of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK)
On October 24, 1947, amidst the chaos, a group of rebels declared the formation of the Provisional Government of Azad (Free) Jammu and Kashmir in the southwestern areas. Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim Khan played a pivotal role in this movement, leading the 'Azad Army' comprising approximately 50,000 men, including many ex-servicemen. They gained control over significant portions of the western districts, which were later designated as Azad Kashmir.
The Karachi Agreement (1949) and the Ceasefire Line (CFL)
The Karachi Agreement of 1949, mediated by the United Nations, established the Ceasefire Line (CFL) between India and Pakistan.
Key Issues in CFL Demarcation
- CFL was marked only up to NJ 9842—beyond this, the agreement ambiguously stated "thence North to the Glaciers."
- This ambiguity was a deliberate British ploy to enable future disputes.
- The CFL was drawn using a thick sketch pen on a 1:2,50,000 map, leading to errors of up to 1 km—a cause of persistent friction.
- In 1972, the CFL was renamed as the Line of Control (LoC).
Siachen Glacier and the Tactical Mapping Controversy
- US Defence Mapping Agency (1967-70): Started depicting Indo-Pak boundaries incorrectly, granting Siachen Glacier to Pakistan on maps.
- Pakistan’s Strategic Intrusions:
- Encouraged foreign expeditions to assert territorial claims over Siachen.
- India preempted Pakistani designs in April 1984 through Operation Meghdoot, securing Siachen.
- Pakistan’s Kargil Misadventure (1999): Attempted to seize Indian territory but was defeated.
India’s Strategic Challenges
India faces a two-front security threat from both Pakistan and China, requiring continuous military vigilance.
Key Military and Strategic Concerns
- Pakistan’s Expansionist Ambitions:
- Regular incursions and cross-border terrorism.
- Attempts to internationalise the Kashmir issue.
- China’s Expansionist Policies:
- Increasing presence in Gilgit-Baltistan.
- Military infrastructure development in Aksai Chin.
- Geopolitical Alignments:
- Pakistan’s dependence on China for military and nuclear technology.
- China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) strategically integrates PoK into its economic corridor.
Gilgit-Baltistan's Accession to Pakistan
In the northern areas, the Gilgit Scouts, a paramilitary force, rebelled against the Maharaja's rule. They declared allegiance to Pakistan, leading to Pakistan's control over Gilgit-Baltistan. Unlike AJK, Gilgit-Baltistan was directly administered by Pakistan and was granted limited autonomy in 2009.
Subsequent Developments
The Kashmir conflict has led to several wars between India and Pakistan, notably in 1965 and 1999, with both countries asserting claims over the entire region. Despite numerous diplomatic efforts and UN resolutions calling for a plebiscite, the dispute remains unresolved, with the LoC serving as the de facto border.
In recent years, political developments have continued to impact the region. For instance, in 2019, the Indian government revoked the special autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir, leading to significant political and social changes. Elections were held in 2024, resulting in a largely powerless government, as the region remains under New Delhi's direct control as a union territory.
The current status of the POK and the broader Kashmir conflict continue to be influenced by a complex history of political manoeuvres, regional dynamics, and conflicts.
Conclusion
The history of Jammu and Kashmir is deeply intertwined with geopolitical manipulation, British colonial interests, and regional conflicts.
The hasty and flawed Partition of 1947 sowed the seeds of the Kashmir dispute. Pakistan’s aggression, backed by British officers, resulted in PoK. China’s opportunism and Pakistan’s strategic miscalculations continue to shape the region’s geopolitics. India’s successful defence of Siachen (1984) and its resilience in Kargil (1999) have reinforced its territorial integrity.
Despite ongoing tensions, India remains committed to protecting its sovereignty over Jammu and Kashmir.
Reference
- “Pakistan Occupied Kashmir” By “S Chandrashekhar,” Senior Fellow, CENJOWS
- “Pakistan Occupied Kashmir: Changing the Discourse” By the “Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses”
- “Facts that Led to the Creation of Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (West of LOC) & China Occupied Kashmir (East of LAC)” by “Lt. Gen Prakash Katoch (Retd.)”
15 Interesting Facts and History about Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (POK)
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